Somalia’s modern political map is one of the most complex in Africa. It is shaped by colonial borders, clan politics, Cold War rivalries, civil war, regional autonomy, Islamist insurgency, and the unresolved status of Somaliland.
At its simplest, Somalia today can be understood as a federal republic based in Mogadishu, alongside several powerful regional administrations. However, it can be complicated to get your head around and it does have an impact on travelling in the region, with different rules and visa processes, in different parts of the country.
There are parts of modern day Somalia, such as Somaliland and Puntland, that operate differently to the rest of the country and it leaves some people asking whether Puntland and Somaliland are countries in their own right?
Somaliland operates as a self-declared independent state in the northwest, Puntland functions as a highly autonomous region in the northeast, and the federal government continues to face political disputes with regional states as well as an ongoing conflict with Al-Shabaab.
When visiting this part of the world it’s important to understand what the visa systems are for Somalia, Somaliland and Puntland, because there is no uniform process
In fact, Somalia is one of the few countries in the world where you can take off on a domestic flight and by the time you land it has turned into an international flight (in the eyes of the authorities at the other end). Make sure to check out our FAQs on the region for extra travel and visa information.
But how did we get to this complicated geopolitical situation today and what factors historically created modern Somalia?
Somali identity before modern borders
Long before modern states existed, Somali-speaking pastoral, trading and coastal communities lived across the Horn of Africa. These communities were connected by language, Islam, clan networks, trade routes and nomadic movement, rather than by the fixed borders that exist today.
This is important because the Somali people were not confined to the borders of modern Somalia. Somali communities also live in what is now Djibouti, eastern Ethiopia, especially the Somali Region/Ogaden, and northeastern Kenya, historically known as the Northern Frontier District. This wider Somali-inhabited region is often referred to as Greater Somalia or Soomaaliweyn.
The Greater Somalia idea
The idea of Greater Somalia was not simply about expanding a state. For many Somali nationalists, it was about reuniting Somali-speaking peoples who had been divided by colonial boundaries.
By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Somali-inhabited lands had been divided between several powers:
- British Somaliland covered the northwest, roughly corresponding to today’s Somaliland.
- Italian Somaliland covered much of southern and central Somalia.
- French Somaliland later became independent as Djibouti.
- The Ogaden became part of Ethiopia.
- The Northern Frontier District became part of Kenya.
When Somalia became independent in 1960, only British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland united to form the new Somali Republic. The other Somali-inhabited territories remained outside Somalia’s borders.
However, the reason there are five stars on all Somalia flags is a nod to these five different regions.
Independence and the First Somali Republic
At independence, Somalia was initially seen as one of Africa’s more promising new states. It had a parliamentary system, political parties and a strong sense of national identity.
However, the new state faced challenges from the beginning. The two former colonial territories had different administrative traditions, different levels of development and different political experiences. The north had been governed by Britain, while the south had been governed by Italy and then placed under a UN trusteeship before independence.
The new government also faced the question of what to do about Somali communities outside its borders. The dream of Greater Somalia became a major theme in the early republic, particularly regarding Ethiopia’s Ogaden region and Kenya’s Northern Frontier District. Somalia fought Ethiopia in 1964 and later became involved in the much larger Ogaden War of 1977–78 under Siad Barre.
Siad Barre and the Centralised State
In 1969, following the assassination of President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, the military seized power. Major General Mohamed Siad Barre became the country’s leader and established an authoritarian state.
Barre’s government promoted “scientific socialism”, centralised power and tried to reduce the influence of clan politics. In practice, however, clan alliances and rivalries remained deeply important. Over time, the regime became increasingly repressive, especially towards groups it viewed as threats.
The disastrous Ogaden War against Ethiopia weakened the state and damaged Barre’s legitimacy. During the 1980s, armed opposition movements grew, including the Somali National Movement in the northwest. Human rights groups and historians have documented severe abuses under Barre’s rule, including the devastating 1988 bombardment of Hargeisa in the northwest.
The collapse of Somalia in 1991
In 1991, Siad Barre was overthrown. Instead of producing a smooth political transition, his fall led to the collapse of the central state. Rival armed factions, clan militias and warlords fought for control, particularly in Mogadishu and southern Somalia.
The state’s collapse created one of the most important turning points in modern Somali history. There was no effective national government for years. Different regions began to organise themselves separately, either for survival, security or political autonomy.
This is the period in which both the modern Somaliland and Puntland emerged.
The creation of Somaliland
In May 1991, leaders in the former British Somaliland region declared that they were withdrawing from the union with Somalia and restoring Somaliland’s independence.
Somaliland’s argument is based partly on history. It had been a British protectorate, briefly became independent in June 1960, and then voluntarily united with Italian Somaliland to form Somalia. After the violence of the Barre era and the collapse of the Somali state, Somaliland’s leaders argued that the union had failed.
Since 1991, Somaliland has developed many of the institutions of a state. It has its own president, parliament, currency, security forces, border controls and elections. It has also generally been more stable than much of southern Somalia.
However, Somaliland’s independence remains disputed. Somalia continues to regard Somaliland as part of its sovereign territory. For decades no UN member state recognised Somaliland as independent – as of 2026, only Israel currently recognises Somaliland’s independence. The issue remains highly contested, with Somalia and major regional organisations continuing to defend the principle of Somali territorial unity.
The creation of Puntland
Puntland was established in 1998 in northeastern Somalia. Unlike Somaliland, Puntland did not declare full independence. Instead, it presented itself as an autonomous Somali administration that wanted to be part of a future federal Somalia.
This distinction matters. Somaliland’s project is secession. Puntland’s original project was autonomy within Somalia.
Puntland’s capital is Garowe, and the region includes key areas along the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean. It has its own government, security forces and political institutions.
It has often been one of the more organised parts of Somalia, but it has also had disputes with Mogadishu, Somaliland and local authorities in contested border areas. Puntland’s own constitution states that the Puntland State was created in 1998 through consultation among its constituent regions.
Federal Somalia: The attempt to rebuild the state
After years of transitional governments, Somalia adopted a provisional federal constitution in 2012. This marked the beginning of the current Federal Republic of Somalia.
The federal model was designed as a compromise. Rather than returning to the heavily centralised state of the Siad Barre era, Somalia would have two levels of government: the federal government in Mogadishu and federal member states with their own administrations. The provisional constitution recognises Somalia as a federal system, with power shared between the centre and member states.
In practice, federalism remains unfinished and disputed. The boundaries, powers and responsibilities of the federal member states are still politically sensitive.
Today, Somalia’s main federal member states are:
Puntland in the northeast
Galmudug in central Somalia.
Hirshabelle north of Mogadishu.
South West State in the Bay, Bakool and Lower Shabelle area.
Jubaland in the far south, including Kismayo.
The Banadir region, which includes Mogadishu, has a special status and is not treated in the same way as a normal federal member state. Somaliland is officially treated by Mogadishu as part of Somalia, but Somaliland rejects this and functions separately in practice.
Untamed Borders has organised pioneering tours in all regions of Somalia. In 2016 Untamed Borders organised the first commercial trip, since 1991, to the very tip of the Horn of Africa – in search of an Italian, colonial-era lighthouse, which we hoped would still be there (which it was). Our Founder, James Willcox, spoke at the Royal Geographical Society, in London, about this adventure (you can listen to the talk here).
We have also guided guests to Baidoa in South West State, Warsheikh in Hirshabelle, Dhuusamareeb in Galmudug and to Kismayo in Jubaland, plus other parts of the country.
Somalia today: A layered political system
Somalia today is not neatly controlled from one centre. It is better understood as a layered political system.
At the top is the Federal Government of Somalia, based in Mogadishu. It is internationally recognised and represents Somalia at the United Nations.
Below that are the Federal Member States, which have their own presidents, parliaments and security forces. They cooperate with Mogadishu in some areas, but often clash with it over elections, security, resources and constitutional powers.
Then there is Somaliland, which functions separately and seeks international recognition.There are also disputed or emerging administrations, especially in the north.
Finally, there is the reality of Al-Shabaab, the Islamist militant group affiliated with Al-Qaeda. Al-Shabaab continues to control or influence parts of south-central Somalia and remains one of the biggest obstacles to state-building.
Current political tensions
Somalia’s current politics are dominated by several unresolved questions.
One is the balance of power between Mogadishu and the federal member states. Puntland, in particular, has repeatedly clashed with the federal government over constitutional changes and the division of authority.
A second issue is the constitution. Somalia operated for years under a provisional constitution, and constitutional reform has been controversial.
A third issue is Somaliland. The question of Somaliland’s recognition has become increasingly geopolitical because of its location near the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, especially around the port of Berbera. This geographic advantage is what has led to Israel recognising Somaliland as an independent nation, placing Israeli interests close to its adversaries – the Houthis – in Yemen.
Somalia rejects any outside recognition of Somaliland as a violation of its sovereignty, while Somaliland argues that it has functioned as an independent state for more than three decades.
Why Somalia’s political map matters for travellers
For travellers, Somalia’s political make-up is not just a matter of history. It affects visas, security, transport, permits, local contacts and where visitors can realistically go.
Mogadishu and parts of south-central Somalia fall under the Federal Government of Somalia, but security conditions remain challenging. Somaliland has its own entry system and functions differently from Mogadishu. Puntland has its own authorities and security structures.
This means that travel in Somalia is not like travel in a standard centralised country. A visitor may be dealing with different authorities, different security environments and different political realities depending on where they go.
Untamed Borders organises group trips to Somalia, Somaliland and Puntland – for more information about travelling in each area and what visas you need, please email – info@untamedborders.com